Suport de curs

Interculturalism in Romania: the metamorphosis of a post-totalitarian society

CONSTANTIN CUCOS

ABSTRACT This paper provides a succinct presentation of the cultural diversity present in Romania today. The author shall point out some of the causes and crises that have led to the emergence of various tensions relating to: rediscovering identity, dealing with the inertia of the past, clinging to former identities, exotic identity issues, and extensive cultural and political fragmentation. This paper also presents a discussion of the origins of diversity in Romania from historical, geographical, cultural-religious, sociological, economic and political vantage points. Finally, the paper suggests several ways in which intercultural education can be promoted and developed in the Romanian context.

The Analysis of Cultural Diversity in Romania
Before the anti-communist revolution of 1989
1. Official Policy. Communist policy and Marxist-Leninist ideology were meant toobfuscate any ethnic or religious problems in order to minimize the importance ofsuch identities, or to attack their status. This influence extended into all spheres oflife, including ethnic, religious, linguistic and cultural relationships. Totalitarianideology served to define which problems and solutions were relevant. Even themost prominent intellectuals, careful not to inconvenience intellectual circles,seemed infected by a nationalist virus, focusing in their research and their pleas onthat which was "Romanian". History lessons, in schools took place through adistorting lense of triumphalism: the Romanians were described as always havingbeen victorious in major battles, while the outsiders (Turks, Tartars, Russians,Habsburgs, Germans, Hungarians, etc.) were portrayed as being evil, naieve, weak.A negative image of "the other" was methodically inculcated. The educational andartistic domains competed against each other to exaggerate Romanian culturalidentity in the most extreme way.
2. Everyday Reality. Despite official attempts to ignore and repress diversity inRomanian society, there was a powerful movement (though behind the scenes) toexpose this diversity. It manifested itself in a clandestine, secretive way. During thetenure of the communist regime two distinct types of realities could be observed: an

official, explicit, declarative one versus a private, implicit, hidden one. The official policy was to remove all remnants of individuality and to control the individual. However, informally, in everyday life and in everyday interactions, people preserved their natural inclinations. This could, for instance, be observed at the level of everyday language and discourse. These were replete with ambivalent, polysemantic expressions; the meaning depended on the context (an "allowed" meaning and a "subversive" one could be identified). Romanians developed a special language to circumvent totalitarian control. What needed to be omitted from political discourse found an outlet in poetry and fiction. The most ardent opponents of the totalitarian system, and those dreaded most by the authorities, were indeed artists. Although such opposition could for the most part be considered unproductive, it was the only type of opposition possible at the time.
After the Anti-communist Revolution of 1989
The transition from a totalitarian to a democratic society has not been smooth. Certainties of the past have disappeared (the omnipresent party-state, its repressive apparatus, but also its protective paternalism), and made way for uncertainty and confusion. For several years the old and new systems seemed to coexist despite their intrinsic contradictions: socialist structures and older traditions adjusting to a new capitalist reality (Birzea, 1994). Given the pervasive nature of the changes taking place it is obvious that majority-minority relations would also be affected.
After the collapse of communism an almost uncontrollable explosion of cultural and political diversification took place. Minorities of all kinds used their new found freedom to start fighting for their rights. Simultaneously, theoretical discourse and research on issues of intercultural importance increased significantly. This academic process continues today.
In the following section we shall examine the causes for the emergence of various types of differences and tensions in Romanian society.
Differences and Tensions
"Rediscovering" Identity
The dawn of a new era in Romania, and its concomitant novel value system, led to a sense of uncertainty and identity confusion for many Romanian people. This also effected the way in which people viewed and approached "outsiders". After having been told that everybody needs to be the same it is not easy to accept a notion of diversity. In addition, many people suffer from a sense of being partly to blame for the past, due to their (tacit or full) support of the old system. Identity problems among the Romanian population can be recognized in the following (diverse and contradictory) manifestations:
• rejection or concealment of one's previous identity, or embracing of a new identity that is somehow seen as more "pure", "cleaner", more "unstained";
• discarding all previous values, even the positive ones, because they are perceivedas being old—the so-called "throwing out the baby with the bathwater" syndrome;
• rejection of a global orientation, and replacing it with an exclusively local ornationalistic orientation
• acceptance of a shifting identity (different from one day to the next- lacking anidentity anchor), giving way to opportunistic behaviour;
• uncritical acceptance of novel views and norms in an attempt to change by anymeans possible;
• the emergence of a plethora of new systems of meaning;
• introversion, retreat into oneself, narcissism, egocentrism, and extreme indivi­dualism.
Inertia of the Past and Clinging to Former Identities
Many Romanians still feel nostalgic towards the past. They fear change and feel they do not control the course of societal changes. They long for the certainties of the past, a time when things were more predictable, and reality less compli­cated.
Exotic Identity Issues
We can find a certain segment of society that is attempting to embrace a type of identity that is characteristic of other parts of the world, but difficult to maintain in Romania (thus the term exotic). These individuals are tempted to emigrate to other parts of Europe or the United States. As was the case for many Romanians in the past, these individuals desire to escape to a "better place", where they feel they can fulfill their dreams.
Extensive Cultural and Political Fragmentation
After 1989 a new and struggling democracy emerged, and the political, social and cultural currents were translated into a chaotic landscape of competing ideas (e.g. there were several hundred political parties after 1989). The result has been a highly diverse cultural landscape that can perhaps be termed multicultural, but hardly intercultural. The groups tend to coexist, but they rarely communicate with each other.
Understanding Diversity in Romania
Historical Causes
Romania has long had a multicultural character. The "Romanians' is a concept that can best be traced to the blending that took place between a Dacian and a Roman population after Roman troops defeated local forces between 101-102 and
table l. The nationalities of Romania's population (1992 Census).Nationality No. of persons Percentage

Romanians
20,408,540
89.5
Magyars (Hungarians)
1,624,959
7.1
Gypsies
401,087
1.8
Germans
119,462
0.5
Ukrainians
65,764
0.3
Russians
38,606
0.2
Turks
29,832
0.1
Serbs
29,408
0.1
Tartars
24,596
0.1
Slovaks
19,594
0.1
Others:

0.2
Bulgarians
9,851

Jews
8,955

Croatians
4,085

Czechs
5,797

Poles
4,232

Greeks
3,940

Armenians
1,957

etc.
8,602

Undeclared
766

Total population
22,810,035

105-106 AD, and the subsequent partial withdrawal of the Romans in 271 AD. Further mixing took place during the early Middle Ages as a consequence of multiple migrations to the region. Linguistic and cultural (not to mention archaeo­logical) elements of the migratory histories of, for instance, Goths, Tartars, Cumans, and Slavs persist still in present day Romania. In later periods of the Middle Ages the Ottoman Empire had a profound influence on the Romanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, introducing more oriental elements into the cultural, behavioural and linguistic life of the region. Transylvania, as a result of its incorpo­ration for centuries into the Habsburg and later Austro-Hungarian empires, brings with it considerable western influence. This region of Romania has a very substantial Hungarian population (who have lived there since their ancestors migrated from Asia), which has coexisted with an indigenous Romanian population also for centuries. We can furthermore find significant numbers of Germans (Schwabs), descendants of the Teutonic Knights, who migrated to the region in the 14th century out of economic and strategic reasons.
These influences, combined with Byzantine influences, which arrived through religious and political channels, make Romania an almost unique synthesis of Western and Eastern tradition. The Banat region in the southwestern part of Romania is illustrative in this regard, with its multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multi-confessional character (see Neumann, 1997).
Despite the fertile breeding ground between the Carpathians, Danube and Black Sea for a host of cultural expressions there is also an underlying theme—a Latin linguistic and cultural substratum. This theme has permeated the spiritual essence of Romanian society. As such, it could serve as the starting point for intercultural dialogue, also given its shaping power in the rest of Europe.
Geographical Causes
If we look carefully at the present day borders of Romania we can gain a further appreciation of the types of cultural exchanges that have taken place in Romanian history. Many cultures are located at these borders. In the northern part of the country we find fairly compact communities of somewhat isolated cultures: Ukraini­ans, Czechs and Poles. To the east we find Tartar, Turkish, Greek and Russian communities. Heading south we encounter Serbs, Bulgarians and Albanians. And, finally, to the west there are countless communities populated by people of Hungar­ian descent. This salad bowl of cultures, living in relative proximity to each other, can be explained by a series of migrations, from far and near, in the near and far past, due to economic, historical, religious and military reasons (the migratory histories of the Schwabs, Jews, Roma, Armenians and Greeks are good examples of this). The most recent examples of population movement along and across the borders is taking place in the east (Moldavians coming to Romania) and the west (the strong ties with Hungary).
Cultural and Religious Causes
The majority population's culture is firmly embedded in a European Judeo-Christian tradition. The linguistic substratum is Latin (grammatical language struc­ture and vocabulary), although it also contains other elements from the minorities that have settled over the years. The mixture of a Latin base with multiple exterior influences has allowed Romanian culture to absorb other cultural elements quite easily. It also points to the creative cultural and linguistic potential of this society, so clearly characterized by heterogeneity.
Social, Economic and Political Causes
The collapse of decades of communist rule, giving way to a new democratic and liberal society, allowed a multitude of suppressed attitudes, philosophies and behaviours to surface again. With the artificial shroud of egalitarianism removed, the population has had to acknowledge the existence of manifest socio-economic differ­ences. This has not been easy for many who cling to the earlier myths of economic equality as espoused by Marxist-Leninist doctrine, which promotes a society based on individual need instead of individual accomplishment. Future years will un­doubtedly show that socio-economic differences will become more pronounced, as well as the emergence of a host of new cultural expressions. Romanian society needs to be prepared to meet the challenge of these changes.
table 2. The Romanian population, according to religious affiliation
(1992 Census)

Faith or confession
No of persons Percentage

Orthodox
19.802.389
86.8
Roman-catholic
1,161,942
5.1
Reformat
802,454
3.5
Greek-catholic
223,327
1.0
Pentecostal
220,824
1.0
Baptist
109,462
0.5
Adventist
77,546
0.3
Unitarian
76,708
0.3
Moslem faith
55,928
0.2
Evangelist Christian
49,963
0.2
Augustan Evangelist
39,119
0.2
Old Christian
28,141
0.1
Old Orthodox
32,228
0.1
Evangelist-Synod-Presbyterian
21,221
0.1
Mosaic
9,670
0.05
Other faith
56,329
0.2
Atheists
34,645
0.2
Undeclared
8,139
0.04
Total
22,810,035

Theoretical Reflection
The multicultural character of the European continent offers a wealth of potential to develop true interculturalism. The latter represents a principle that aims to encourage communication, exchanges and connections between variegated cultural models (Bouchez and de Paretti, 1990). The strength of one's cultural identity can be increased by an awareness and understanding of cultural elements not found in one's own cultural environment. Being confined to the limitations present in any given culture represents an impoverishment. According to a UNESCO document (Cultures, 1977): "a good cultural education should allow the individual to tran­scend the aspects of his own culture, which are perceived as limitative, and release the aspirations that are paralysed because of the strait jacket applied to them" (p. 87). Researchers in the field of intercultural education point to the importance of alternation in the construction of one's identity. Micheline Rey suggests that interculturalism does not imply, as is often stated, "the right to difference", since this (pedagogical) slogan leads to (and even tends to justify) apartheid. She com­ments that "the intercultural element is above all the right to equality (which is not brought into question by diversity) and, mainly, the essential role of alternation, which simultaneously substantiates and renews the whole (individual and social) life and culture itself (Rey, 1993, p. 2). The individual's possibilities to adapt will consequently increase. Individuals become capable of calling upon different aspects of their identity to function in a wide variety of situations.
Romanian society is becoming more and more complex through migration, new contacts with abroad and the disappearance of strict (mental and physical) boundaries. This new complexity is dealt with in various ways. For some the only solution to population diversity is seen to be to assimilate new arrivals into a so-called melting pot, thereby removing all the distinctive characteristics of the other culture. Another attitude is to tolerate cultural differences, but to limit contact and "cultural mixing". Hubert Hannoun (1989) has commented that both attitudes promote a type of ghettoisation, characterized by a rigid approach to diversity. He suggests a third course that implies an intercultural attitude: affirming each cultural input with the goal of constructing a new common civilization. According to Hannoun "School should not only educate children to live together within the same universe containing different values, but it should allow them to find out that this universe is nourished through countless threads, converging, intersecting and com­pleting one another, thus creating a new environment where everybody is invited to live" (Hannoun, 1989, p. 112). The extent to which intercultural dialogue is engaged in reflects a society's openness towards new expressions. It is necessary when dialogue takes place to fight against tendencies to establish "cultural compo­nent hierarchies", often based on ethnocentric or sociocentric criteria. Certain cultural expressions are a priori considered superior or more desirable in such hierarchies. Educational institutions (as well as many other) are prone to fall into this type of behaviour. It makes little sense to simply judge other cultures and their expressions on the basis of a single monocultural measuring stick (see e.g. Camilleri, 1993, for a discussion of how this relates to personal value systems).
As I have mentioned in an earlier publication (Cucos, 1995), one can view the principle of interculturalism from at least two perspectives:
1. Synchronic level or perspective. This allows us to understand individuals wholive in different cultural environments during the same historical period. Inter-culturalism is primarily interpreted in this manner and it represents the richestarea of mediation at the moment;
2. Diachronic level or perspective. This represents an attempt to make connectionsbetween cultures existing in different time periods. It is a theoretical approachnot often used, although it has sufficient heuristic value. In this instance, anintercultural perspective can imply reviving a. certain culture considered to be"dead". We can perceive contemporary cultures as the result of continualtranslations/transformations of some basic underlying motifs and constants. Bymeans of such "translation" (transcriptions, transpositions, reiterations, varia­tions) the "deep structures" of a certain culture can survive, and manifestthemselves in different "surface structures" that depend on the specific socio-cultural context.
Intercultural education implies a novel approach to the values that are promoted in education. These can no longer be conceived of in a binary, exclusive manner (good-bad, us-them, etc.). A monotheistic, dichotomic perspective has nothing in common with the intercultural approach. Instead, the issue at stake here is the negotiation of values, their interpretation, their juxtapositioning and complemen-
tarity. The administration of human universality (Camilleri, 1995) is an issue that affects us all.
Intercultural Education: Perspectives for the Romanian Educational System
Romanian educational practices stand at a crossroads. Change and renewal are currently penetrating all layers of this institution. Given the rapid and often radical changes taking place, there is an opportunity to introduce interculturalism into educational settings. There are various reasons why intercultural education is important as a response to the Romanian situation, including:
1. pragmatic reasons. It is much easier to introduce innovations and novel elementsat the beginning of a process. The Romanian educational system is being placedon a new foundation and intercultural education should be part of that foun­dation;
2. it is a well-known fact that ethnic tensions can occur due to insufficient knowl­edge of other groups and their cultures. Various cultural groups have coexistedin Romania for centuries. Nevertheless, after 1989 several open conflicts tookplace between ethnic and linguistic communities. Especially worth mentioningare the conflicts between ethnic Romanians and ethnic Hungarians, and ethnicRomanians and the Roma. There have even been conflicts between thosebelonging to the Orthodox Church and the Greek-Catholic Church. Interculturaleducation at a young age can help to prevent similar conflicts from happening inthe future;
3. the shift to an intercultural perspective would help with the transition to an open,permissive and democratic society, characterized by both pluralism and soli­darity;
4. gaining intercultural skills would help people in their daily interaction withothers. Interculturalism works against egocentrism, extreme pragmatism anddiscriminatory behaviour.
Introducing intercultural principles in education can have some initial negative consequences. Certain prejudices from the past can reappear, as can feelings of outgroup hatred and disdain. In my opinion, it is necessary to first remove old stereotypes and prejudices, before cultivating in people an appreciation of others. Thus, we need to aspire to first reach a "zero-level" mentality, devoid of old negative value judgements. Then we can build upon this foundation in a positive way.
It might even be useful to help people "forget" the past. There is sometimes pedagogical value in the process of "forgetting". Most of the ethnic tensions we see in Transylvania today are the result of conflicts of the past, and these conflicts (e.g. the Vienna "diktat", the period immediately following WWII, the sense of revenge in the ex-Soviet state of Moldavia) are being used for propaganda purposes. Reversing the tables on those who were culturally or linguistically privileged in the past is not a solution to the problem. Stability and moderation are essential. Time and history have brought together Romanians and Russians, Romanians and
Hungarians, Romanians and Roma, etc. It is essential for these communities to get to know and understand each other, since their futures will be linked. Cultural arrogance and superiority are never justified. With respect to education, interculturalism offers the following challenges:
1. the necessity to create a new educational system based on the premises offlexibility and the autonomy of the more basic educational institutions. Auto­nomy and decentralization of educational activities at the school level willsupport the cultivation of diversity, as well as intercultural openness;
2. assisting the educational system to prevent "ghettoisation" and cultural segre­gation, also by offering the possibility of mother tongue education. In placeswhere two or more ethnic groups co-exist the approach should be one ofreciprocity and exchange (as Antonio Perotti, 1994, for example, suggests);
3. the necessity to establish a set of educational objectives that focus on thedevelopment of spiritual autonomy, of self-instruction and self-education.Students should learn skills that help them deal with the continuing culturaltransformation of Romanian society;
4. the transformation of Romanian curriculum so that it includes a multiculturaland interculrural dimension. This is especially necessary in disciplines such ashistory, geography, literature, the arts, but also the natural sciences. Studentsneed to learn about diversity and regard it positively. A balance needs to bestruck between a focus on a global versus local perspective, as well as between ageneralistic versus particularistic approach. It is also necessary to move awayfrom the idea that all schools need a uniform curriculum;
5. the introduction of teaching methodologies that best promote an interculturalperspective. These methodologies are more flexible and interactive than tra­ditional methodology.
The application of intercultural principles needs to take place in such a way that both educational objectives and the needs of the community are kept in mind. I would like to close by briefly mentioning three community models relevant to this issue:
1. where we find multicultural communities characterized by overt interethnictensions the approach should focus on therapeutic intervention to help amelio­rate existing conflicts and help prevent others. Schools, churches, various culturalorganizations and foundations can all play a role in this process. Decentralizationof these institutions will help make intercultural interventions more effective;
2. in communities without overt tensions intercultural education can be focused onpreventing potential conflicts, on mutual understanding, interethnic opennessand collaboration. The concrete approach will depend on the specific needs,desires, etc. of the individuals involved (from different ethnic groups);
3. when communities tend to be more monoculrural or ethnically homogenous, itis necessary for them to prepare for the intercultural dialogues that invariablyawait them in the future. The world and Romania are rapidly changing, and
cultural interaction will become more and more the norm. Romanians need to be made aware of this and prepare themselves for this future.
Address for correspondence: Department of Education. "Al. I. Cuza"; University of lasi; Copu, 11; Iasi-6600; Romania. E-mail: cucos@uaic.ro
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